Puppy Development

Knowing what to expect as your puppy grows up will help you prepare for his training and exercise needs. Below is a guide to your new puppy's growth, both physical and mental. This is only a guide and is not set in stone, as there are differences among breeds and individuals.

From birth – 12 days: Neonatal Period

The puppies are completely dependent on the care of their dam. Their eyes and ears are sealed, but they can smell and feel.

13 – 20 days: Transitional Period

Puppies' eyes and ears begin to open, though the eyes are not fully functional until 10 weeks old.

3 - 8 weeks:

Baby teeth are coming in. Ouch!

3 - 14 weeks: Critical Socialization Period

This is the most important developmental period for you to be aware of. This is a time of immense learning. Puppies are extremely impressionable and are learning what is safe and normal in their world. This is when puppies must have safe, positive interactions with a variety of new people, new dogs, and other animals in order to be social as adults. They are learning bite inhibition and social skills from other dogs as they play. They must also have positive exposure to novel stimuli such as various sights, sounds, smells, surfaces. They can begin learning obedience foundation such as sit, down, and come (in 1-2 minute training sessions). They should be learning to accept handling, being held, and having nails trimmed. Potty training should be well underway, as the puppy is already developing a preference for where he will potty (hopefully not on carpet!). Researchers Scott & Fuller found that puppies who had not seen a stranger before 7 weeks old are unlikely to approach one without encouragement. If they have not seen one before 14 weeks old, they may never voluntarily approach strangers. Read more about safe puppy socialization here.

Between 8 - 11 weeks: First Impact Period (“fear period”)

Within the Critical Socialization Period, there is usually a brief “fear period.” It may last a few days or a week. Your normally confident, curious puppy may hesitate around new stimuli, and even around things that didn't bother him before. Socialization can be scaled back but should continue, with extra care taken to prevent negative experiences from traumatizing him. Then your puppy will return to his usual curiosity about the world.

3 - 8 months:

Adult teeth are replacing baby teeth. Give lots of toys and chews!

4 - 8 months: Flight Instinct Period

This oddly-named period is when your “puppy” starts to be more grown up. He will be ready to leave the security of home and family and be much more interested in exploring the big wide world, and especially in interacting with other dogs. He will experiment with new behaviors, and often issues with marking, counter-surfing, barking, pulling on leash, and not coming when called pop up.

Between 6 - 15 months: Second Impact Period (“fear period”)

The second “fear period” is not as well-defined. It may last a few weeks to several months, and the onset may be gradual or sudden. Avoid forcing your dog into scary situations. Instead, help him gain confidence by encouraging investigation and rewarding good choices. Continue careful socialization. Beware of dog parks.

Between 9 - 18 months: Growth plates close

Growth plates are open areas between bones that are particularly susceptible to injury. Hard impacts that occur before the growth plates finish growing (“close”) can affect bone growth and cause permanent injury. This is why young dogs should not be exposed to repetitive or hard impact exercise such as jumping, jogging (especially on paved roads), or catching frisbees. Spaying/neutering before the growth plates close also impacts the dog's physical development. X-rays can confirm when an individual dog’s growth plates are closed, but rules of thumb are:

• Small dogs (<20 lbs): 6-8 months

• Medium dogs (21-50 lbs): 12 months

• Large dogs (51-100 lbs): 12-18 months

• X-Large dogs (100+ lbs): 24 months

2 - 3 years: Maturity

Dogs are often considered “adult” around 1 - 1.5 years, but full maturity, both mentally and physically, is around 2 - 3 years. Finally!

Puppy Biting and Chewing

Why do puppies bite so much!?

• It's how they explore the world! They don't have hands so they check things out by chewing on them. It's also inherently enjoyable to chew on stuff.

• It's how they learned to play with their siblings, and they don't know yet that we humans want to play differently.

• They are excited by movement (particularly herding breeds and terriers).

• They're teething, and are experiencing pain or irritation in their gums that may be soothed by chewing.

How to discourage biting while petting or playing with your pup:

• Don't reach for your dog's head from the front or above. Pet from the side or while he's facing away from the hand that's petting. (See video below.) Belly rubs also tend to lead to mouthing, so avoid them unless your pup is truly calm.

• Always have a toy or chew within reach and if your pup is in a biting mood, physically place it between his mouth and your body parts. Keep moving it around as needed to keep it between the two of you, like a shield.

• Play with long, thin, whippy toys that drag along the ground rather than toys you hold up in the air. Encourage tug and chase games with the longer toys.

  • Flirt poles are an excellent option, especially when kids want to play with dogs. You can purchase a designated flirt pole (small dogs, big dogs) or create your own by purchasing a lunge whip at the feed store and attaching any toy dog to the end.

  • For extra protection, have the kids stand behind a baby gate or pen, so the puppy cannot get to their feet or hands. (Don’t have the kids play while “safely” on the couch or chairs, as soon the pup will be big enough to reach up and nip them there.)

• Every time your pup manages to get his mouth on your skin or clothes, calmly remove him and redirect to a toy or chew. Be prepared to do this over and over and over again!

• If your puppy is suddenly biting harder or more frequently than usual - or you’re trying to redirect him to a toy but he is very insistent on going right for your skin - he is probably either overly excited or overly tired. Redirect to a different activity (such as calm training time) or put him away in a pen or crate with a chew and let him decompress. See here for information on puppy schedules to avoid overly tired and nippy pups.

• Some puppies also bite more or harder when they are physically uncomfortable, such as from feeling hungry, needing to potty, or having itchy or inflamed skin.

• For pups who never seem to stop biting: try smearing something like peanut butter or cream cheese in a thin layer on the back of your hand, wrist, and/or lower arm. This encourages the dog to lick rather than bite. Praise the puppy for licking. Repeat as needed.

Demo on how to pet a puppy without getting bitten.

Should I yelp or yell when my puppy bites?

• This is common advice, but doesn't always help. Many puppies become MORE excited when you yelp or yell, which makes them bite more.

• If your pup doesn't have that problem, the proper way to use the “yelp” method is to yelp, AND then do a mini time out. Pull your hands close to your body, look away from the pup, and ignore him for 1-3 seconds. Reengage when he is acting appropriately (not jumping, barking, or biting)

Do NOT:

Do not close your puppy's mouth, swat at it, or otherwise put your hands in/around his mouth when he is biting. This creates a negative association with hands coming toward his head, which will cause problems down the road.

Troubleshooting:

• My puppy bites my legs/feet/clothes when I walk by:

  • Don't let your pup practice this behavior. If you’re too busy/distracted to train, proactively keep him away from your feet by using x-pens, baby gates, tethers, and leashes.

  • Use treats to direct your dog's head up and reward him for any steps taken without biting you.

  • When it does happen, hold still (don't yell or jump around) and calmly redirect your puppy to a toy or chew. Be prepared to do this over and over and over again!

  • Make sure your pup is getting plenty of appropriate exercise (including toy play, mental enrichment, and calm cardio exercise like walks).

  • Add proactive training exercises:

• My puppy bites every time I try to put on his collar, harness, or leash:

  • Do some desensitization and counter-conditioning to handling.

  • Here is a video on proactive handling exercises with puppies:

• My puppy is fine with the adults, but bites my children:

  • Puppies are always worse with children because the kids are smaller, move quickly and erratically, and have higher-pitched voices (more exciting and less intimidating).

  • Use more environmental management to prevent uncontrolled interactions between the puppy and children. Encourage parallel play. When they’re together, an adult should always be supervising and ready to step in.

  • Coach children to “be a tree” when the puppy bites (or jumps). They should raise and cross their arms (branches), look away from the puppy (to the sky), keep their feet firmly planted (roots in the ground), and hold still and quiet. The parent should then step in and redirect the puppy to a more appropriate activity.

    • Do not let the kids run away from the puppy by jumping onto couches or chairs - this will backfire when he gets big enough to chase them upwards and keep nipping.

  • Teach children how to play toy games (tug, fetch, flirt pole) in a way that encourages appropriate biting on the toy and discourages jumping and chasing. Keep toys down low; many kids will raise their hands up when they're worried, which can make the puppy jump up to grab the toy. Teach the kids how to do trades and “drop it” instead of reaching for the toy.

  • See more about kids and dogs here.

• My puppy is usually good but goes crazy an hour before bedtime:

  • Nearly all puppies go through a “witching hour” shortly before bedtime.

  • Be prepared and plan ahead! It's not realistic to ask your puppy to clamp down on his energy – instead, have a plan for directing that energy into appropriate activities.

    • Play with long, whippy toys that you can drag on the ground. A toy on a string or flirt pole is great for playing with the puppy while keeping your body parts far away.

    • Scatter treats all around the room, or even better, in the grass outside.

    • Give a particularly enticing chew, such as a new marrow bone.

    • Arrange a play date with another puppy or let him run in a safe off-leash area around the time of the witching hour, or shortly before.

  • See more information on puppy schedules here.

What about chewing on furniture and other household items?

• Have plenty of chew toys available, and rotate through them daily. You should have toys of various textures (rubber, plush, crunchy, rope, etc) along with real, edible animal parts (bully sticks, cow hooves, smoked knuckle bones, water buffalo horns, pig ears, antlers, marrow bones, yak milk/Himalayan sticks, dense wood chews, etc).

• Some puppies enjoy chewing on frozen items such as ice cubes, frozen water-soaked cloth, or frozen fruit. It may numb aching gums.

• Pick up any smaller objects you don't want to get chewed.

• Use gates, pens, tethers, and leashes to confine the puppy and keep him away from furniture he wants to chew.

• Bitter-tasting sprays (like Bitter Apple and Bitter Yuck) deter most puppies (though not all). Reapply daily.

• You are developing good chewing habits by restricting his ability to make mistakes. Gradually give your pup more freedom as you see that he is making good choices.

• Give plenty of mental enrichment and age-appropriate physical exercise. (No forced running or other highly repetitive activity. Allow plenty of free walking and running time, play time with appropriate dogs, and low-impact play.)

Will my puppy grow out of it?

Typically puppy biting and chewing decreases drastically once the pup is finished with teething (~5-6 months old). However most dogs enjoy chewing for life, and should regularly have chews and toys made available.

Potty Training

The principles of potty training are easy to understand, but require good supervision, consistency, and patience for your dog to become reliable.

Prevent your dog from making mistakes:

• When you are out of the house or unable to supervise your dog, put him into a crate, pen, or small room (such as a bathroom or laundry room). This keeps him from roaming the house and eliminating where you don't want him to. Your dog is also likely to hold his bladder and bowels while he is in a confined space, since he wants to keep his area clean.

• When you are home, keep your dog close, so that he doesn't sneak off and have an accident.

  • Use a leash to tether him to you or to a nearby object.

  • Use baby gates or pens to keep him from leaving the room.

Watch for signs that your dog is uncomfortable and looking for a place to eliminate:

• sneaking off

• circling

• pacing

• sniffing

• trying to get your attention

• being frantic and bitey (for puppies)

• quietly moving toward the door

Take your dog to the proper potty area frequently:

• For puppies, take them out every hour, on the hour. (Some young puppies need even more frequent trips out.)

• Also take your dog (adult or puppy) out after:

  • seeing any of the signs listed above

  • mealtimes

  • breaks in playtime

  • waking up from a nap

• While you're outside, stand still and be boring, so your dog learns that this isn't playtime.

• If your pup is busy exploring or chewing, use a leash or pen to keep him in a boring area.

• If you want your pup to only potty in a specific area of the yard, use a leash or pen to keep him in that area during potty trips.

• Wait 2-3 minutes for him to do his business.

• If you think he needs to pee or poop but hasn't yet, take him back indoors, but restrict his freedom and supervise him to prevent any accidents. For example:

  • Keep your pup on leash and walk a lap or two around the room, then go right back outside.

  • Play a (not overly exciting) game or do a training session, and take him outside as soon as he disengages or turns away.

  • Give him a chew or toy to self-entertain, and take him outside as soon as he pauses chewing/playing.

Reward your dog for peeing and pooping outside:

• Praise your dog quietly as he eliminates.

  • If the praise makes him stop before he’s finished, either say it more softly, or wait until he is done.

• Give special, extra-yummy treats as soon as he's done. (Not when he comes back to the house - you should be outside with your dog so that you can reward him promptly!)

• If he's empty, he can have extra freedom of movement inside until he's likely to be full again. (Generally 30 minutes to 1 hour for puppies, a few hours for adult dogs.)

Teaching a “go potty” cue:

• Your dog will learn the meaning of “go potty” if you say it right before he actually pees/poops - as he’s starting to squat or lift a leg.

  • He needs to make a strong association between the sounds “go potty” and the action of eliminating.

• Don’t repeat the “go potty” cue just hoping that he will do so. That will either make your dog focus up on you, or teach him to ignore those words.

• If your dog gets distracted and stops eliminating because you said something, try:

  • Saying it more softly at first, then increasing to a normal volume over time.

  • Saying it in the middle of the act at first, then earlier in the process over time.

• Once your dog is quick to potty when you take him outside, you can start saying “go potty” earlier in the process.

  • Say “go potty” as he is sniffing or circling.

  • Eventually say “go potty” as soon as you go outside.

  • Remember not to repeat “go potty” over and over - that will break the association he has with the correct action.

  • Remember to reward him when he eliminates on cue, to keep him motivated to listen for it.

• Some people have different cues for urination versus defecation, while others use the same cue. Here are some ideas for verbal cues you could use:

  • “Go pee” vs “go poo” (or “peepee” vs “poopoo”)

  • “Do one” vs “Do two”

  • “Business” (as in “do your business”)

  • “Toilet”

If your dog has an accident:

• If you find the mess after your dog is done, it is too late - your dog cannot make the connection between the act of eliminating in the house and you being unhappy.

• If you catch him in the act, you can communicate your displeasure by giving a quick yell in an unhappy tone (“Ah, not there!!”), but…

• Do not punish or scare your dog! This is likely to a) make your dog more determined to sneak off and eliminate in a different room, and b) be nervous about peeing or pooping in front of you at all, even outside.

• Instead, this is a sign that you need to up your game in terms of supervision and taking your dog out frequently.

• Clean with a product that is specifically formulated for cleaning up pet messes, such as Nature's Miracle. “All purpose” cleaners may not break down the proteins in the pee/poop properly, and your dog will still be able to smell them - which is a big sign saying “do your business here.”

Developing reliability:

• When your dog is successfully going outside and rarely has accidents, you can slowly start to extend the time between trips outside.

• You can let your dog have more freedom of movement / less supervision in the house during times that you're home and you’re sure he's empty.

• Start leaving him alone outside of the crate/pen for short periods (less than 1 hour) when you're sure he's empty.

  • This should be in a puppy-proofed area, so that he’s not chewing things up, either.

• The better you are at picking up your dog's signs that he needs to go out, the easier it will be.

  • In fact, as your dog learns that you will take him out when he needs it, he will try harder to communicate when he needs to go.

• Some people have success teaching their dog to ring a bell or other noisemaker to communicate.

  • Teach him to ring the bell as a trick, separate from potty training.

    • This works best if your dog understands how to ring the bell on his own - not because you held his paw and hit the bells with it.

  • Place the bell near the door. Ask your dog to ring the bell right before you take him outside.

  • At some point your dog will try ringing the bell without prompting. Praise and immediately take him outside.

    • You can't rush this part - your dog has to figure it out on his own.

  • Here is a video tutorial on teaching your pup to use a bell:

Troubleshooting:

• My dog pees outside, then comes in the house and pees again.

  If he does this regularly, either:

  1. spend more time outside so he can pee twice, or

  2. just assume that he will soon need a second potty trip, and restrict/supervise in the meantime.

     • It can help to keep your dog on leash and walk 1-2 laps around the room, then go right back outside for the second potty.

• According to his age, my puppy is supposed to be able to hold his bladder for X hours, but he has accidents sooner than that - even when I’m really diligent about supervising him.

  • The bladder is a muscle, and just like other muscles, it's weak if it hasn't been exercised. If your dog is young, or if he has grown up peeing whenever and wherever he wants, he may simply not be able to hold it as long as he “should.”

  • Take him out more frequently, and slowly extend the time between trips.

• You don’t understand - my dog is peeing ALL THE TIME.

  He may have a bladder infection or kidney problem. Make an appointment with your vet to check that everything is working as it should.

• Do I need to get up every 1-2 hours during the night to take my puppy out to potty?

  • Most puppies can get through the night with only 1-2 trips outside by the time they’re 8-10 weeks old.

  • By 3 months old, most puppies can make it comfortably overnight with only 1 trip outside.

  • Instead of setting alarms, try waiting for your pup to wake you up by whining or shifting around at night. You might be surprised by how long he can sleep without needing to pee.

  • If your pup ends up having accidents because he doesn’t wake you up, then that’s when proactive alarms are warranted.

• But if my dog is able to hold it so long at night, why does he pee so much during the day?

  Your body's metabolism slows down when you're asleep or resting - you simply can't compare the two.

• My dog refuses to use his potty area.

  • Make sure that it is clean. Many dogs don’t want to use a potty pad more than once or twice, especially if they might have to step on top of their previous deposits.

  • Make sure that it is comfortable. Watch out for these factors:

    • Too much heat under the hot sun (especially when using artificial turf, which can get very hot).

    • Too wet from rain.

    • Close to neighbor dogs barking at the fence.

    • Uncomfortable footing (for example, some dogs really don’t like walking on large, loose rocks).

  • If his area is clean and comfortable, then simply follow the usual plan: prevent accidents, take him to the area frequently, and reward when he does potty there - but keep in mind that some dogs will have very strong preferences, so you may need compromise on the location or substrate!

• My dog pees in his crate/pen/small room.

  • More frequent trips outside! Consider enlisting the help of a family member, neighbor, friend, or pet-sitter.

  • Make sure that the designated potty area is clean and comfortable (see above).

  • Talk to your vet about ruling out a bladder infection or kidney problem.

  • Talk to a trainer or behaviorist about ruling out separation anxiety - one of the common symptoms is eliminating due to severe distress.

  • You may also need to remove absorbent bedding, as some dogs will consider their area “clean enough” if a fluffy blanket wicks the urine away.

  • If you are unable to give your dog frequent enough trips outside while he’s home alone, you should make a designated potty area for him.

    • Instead of keeping your dog in a small crate/pen/room, make it large enough that he has plenty of space to sleep, play, and drink water on one end, and potty at the other.

    • Make the designated potty area absorbent or with good drainage, so that it doesn’t become too off-putting for your dog.

• My dog will potty in our yard, but refuses to go when we’re at the park or traveling, even if it’s been a long time.

  • Some dogs develop such a strong association with eliminating in their backyard, that pottying anywhere else is uncomfortable. They will hold it as long as they possibly can, in hopes of getting back home in time.

    • Think of it the same way as when you are traveling, and the only toilet available is a porta-potty that looks like it hasn’t been cleaned in weeks. You would also have a hard time relaxing and making it happen, unless you really had to.

  • It can help if you have already taught a “go potty” cue, so you can tell your dog what you would like him to do - however that may not be enough to overcome his insistence that this is not the place he should pee.

    • Don’t keep repeating the cue - that will simply teach him to ignore it.

  • The only solution is to wait your dog out, until he can’t hold it anymore - just like you and the gross porta-potty.

  • Schedule some half-day, or even all-day, outings to a park or a friend’s backyard with your dog.

    • It helps if you do this first thing in the morning, when your dog wakes up with a full bladder.

    • You can even give him some snacks with high water content (like watermelon or bone broth) before your trip.

    • Alternate between walking around with your dog and just hanging out with a book or knitting project.

    • Eventually, nature will call, and your dog will have to answer.

      • Praise quietly as your dog eliminates.

      • Throw him a party afterwards! Give him several extra-special, high value treats, and enthusiastic praise.

    • Repeat these trips until your dog no longer hesitates to potty in new places.

    • You may find that your dog is fine with pottying on grass but not gravel or concrete, or has other substrate preferences. Use the same process for getting him used to eliminating on a variety of surfaces.

• My dog is perfectly potty trained at home, but has accidents when we visit someone or stay in a hotel.

  • Sometimes we think that we are teaching the dog “don’t potty indoors,” but the dog actually learns “don’t potty in here.” The lesson doesn’t necessarily transfer to a new location.

  • Simply follow the normal potty training plan outlined in this article in each new location.

  • You may want to also have your dog wear a belly band (males) or diaper (females), to reduce embarrassment and cleaning if there is an accident.

• My dog urine-marks indoors.

  • First check with your vet about ruling out a bladder infection or kidney problems, which can look like marking (frequently depositing small amounts of urine).

  • You will need to restrict/supervise even more carefully. You may want to have your dog wear a belly band (males) or diaper (females), so that if he does mark, it won't actually land on your walls or furniture. This helps with the potential problem of not seeing that your dog has marked and not knowing where to clean.

  • Learn to watch for the body language of a male getting ready to mark. They usually sniff something vertical, then line themselves up sideways. Interrupt immediately when you see this.

  • Some people have found it helpful to have a separate cue for urine-marking versus urinating to relieve the bladder, to help their dog learn that there is a “time and place” for it.

    • Just like when you are teaching a cue for normal peeing, you will say the cue for marking right before your dog does it - as he’s sniffing and lining up.

    • Reward your dog when he marks on cue.

  • If your male is intact, neutering him often reduces urine marking, though it is not a guarantee. If this is a well-established habit, it might persist despite neutering.

• My puppy just wants to play when we go outside.

  • Keep him on leash or in a pen when you go out so that he can't run around or play with toys.

  • Stand still and quiet and don't make eye contact while you wait, so that you're not any fun.

  • In addition to giving your pup enthusiastic praise and treats after he potties, you can let him off the leash to run around and play as part of the reward.

• My dog pees when greeting people.

  This is not a potty training issue per se. Some dogs will pee because they're nervous when greeting people. Young dogs may simply lose control over their bladder when excited.

  • Keep greetings as low-key as possible.

    • Speak only in a calm, quiet voice.

    • Sit or squat down so that you are less threatening.

    • Don’t reach over your dog’s head. Keep your hands low and pet him on his chest or scratch under his chin, instead.

  • Some dogs even need you to ignore them when you first arrive home, and only say hello after several minutes.

  • Have guests greet the dog outside, to reduce clean up, and also follow the suggestions above.

  • Teach confidence-building tricks for your dog to perform while greeting people, such as hand targeting or fetching a toy.

Teaching verbal cues

Dogs are naturally more attuned to our body language than our words. Some are still able to pick up the meanings of words easily - think of the dogs whose owners have to spell out “b-a-t-h” or “w-a-l-k” - but most will only learn verbal obedience cues if the owner makes a special effort. Here are a variety of tips and methods for you to use.

Things to remember before you start training

• Don’t use the same word to mean different things (such as saying “down” when you want your dog to get off the couch and when you want him to lie down on the floor).

  • The word “no” often falls prey to this - people say “no” to mean “don’t eat that” and “don’t rush out the door” and “don’t jump” and “don’t bark at the other dog.” (Here is more information on why “no” isn’t very useful in dog training.)

  • The same thing can happen with your dog’s name. Teach your dog that his name means “focus on me,” and then use it only for that purpose. “Come” is a separate cue!

• Don’t use words that sound very similar for two different behaviors (for example, “down” and “bow", or “speak” and “feet”).

• Keep your tone consistent (eg, say “come” the same way every time, not sometimes high-pitched and happy and other times low and upset).

• Don’t keep repeating your cue, hoping that the dog will eventually listen - follow the steps below to get reliable responses.

Pairing a verbal cue with an event, rather than a behavior

This is used when you want to teach your dog that a specific word is signalling what’s to come next, regardless of the dog’s behavior. Common examples are:

• “Walk” or “Wanna go for a walk?” signals that you’re about to put on the dog’s leash and take him out.

• “Up” signals that you need to pick up your small dog or puppy.

• “All done” can signal that you are done giving your dog attention for now. (The “event” is you withdrawing attention and ignoring your dog.)

• Reward markers (see clicker training 101) fall into this category; “yes” means “you did a good thing and I’m about to give you a treat.” Some people teach different reward markers to mean different things, such as “catch” for a toy that is about to be tossed to the dog or “find it” for a treat that is tossed for the dog to chase/sniff out.

These cues are extremely easy to teach: simply 1) say the verbal cue, then 2) make the event happen.

The key is to say the cue FIRST, and THEN make the event happen. Don’t do both at the same time.

Repeat this over and over. After a while, you’ll see the dog’s body language change when he hears it. He may perk up and wag his tail at “yes” or head to the front door at “walk” (or slink away and hide at “bath”).

Pairing a verbal cue with a previously-trained behavior

This will only work if you already have a behavior that your dog will perform when given a hand signal or otherwise prompted to respond correctly. Common examples are any of the typical obedience behaviors (sit, down, heel), fun tricks (shake, roll over, spin in a circle), and husbandry skills (placing head down on target, offering paw, settling on side).

Similar to above, you want to: 1) say the verbal cue, then 2) give the hand signal or other prompt to get the dog to perform the behavior, finally 3) reward the dog for performing the behavior correctly.

Again, the key is to say the cue FIRST, and THEN prompt the behavior. Don’t do both at the same time. Make sure to reward the dog after he performs, so that he stays motivated to pay attention and respond.

Repeat until the dog understands the pattern and responds to the verbal cue before you get the chance to prompt the behavior. Reward!

Here is a video demonstration of this process, by KikoPup/Emily Larlham:

Trouble-shooting: If you’ve been working on this for a while, and you’re sure that you’re saying the cue first, and then prompting the behavior, but your dog still isn’t responding to the cue:

• Use a lower-value treat (such as kibble or a treat they get all the time) when your dog responds after the prompt.

• Use a higher-value treat (such as real meat or cheese) and extra praise when your dog finally responds before the prompt.

Pairing a verbal cue with an offered behavior

A behavior that is being “offered” by the dog is one that he does without any cues or prompting - either because he’s learned that you like that behavior and so he keeps repeating it, or because it’s a behavior he naturally does on his own. Examples are peeing outside, barking, and stretching. Any behavior that the dog is offering, and which you want to be able to cue the dog to do anytime, can be put on a verbal cue.

Like the two methods above, you still want to rehearse saying the verbal cue just before the dog performs the behavior, but it can be much more challenging. How do you know that your dog is about to stretch, bark, etc? Look for patterns! For example:

• Turning in a tight circle while sniffing around, just before pottying

• Always stretching after coming out of a crate or getting up from a nap

• Barking every time the doorbell rings

• Going to the back door when wanting to go outside

• You’ve been petting your dog every time he puts his head on your lap, and now he does it frequently when he approaches you at the computer

Now that you can predict the behavior you’re looking for, you’re ready to start pairing it with a verbal cue. Simply say the cue just before your dog does the behavior, wait for him to do it, and give a reward after he does it. Repeat something like 50-100 times before you try cuing your dog to perform the behavior in a different context.

Trouble-shooting:

• If your dog stops what he’s doing as soon as you say anything (especially annoying if you say “potty” and that makes the dog stop and stare at you), you can:

  • Say it very quietly at first, and raise your volume to a normal voice over time.

  • Start off by saying the verbal cue once the dog is already doing the behavior, and adjust your timing to be earlier and earlier over time.

• If you’ve done the pairing process soooo many times but your dog just stares blankly when you give the cue in a different context:

  • Try practicing in as similar a context as you can.

    • For example, if your goal is to be able to cue your dog to potty during walks, and right now he only does it in the backyard, practice saying “potty” in the front yard next.

    • If you want your dog to bark on cue, and he does it when there’s someone at the door but not any other time, trying saying “speak” and then giving a knock on the front door. This is likely similar enough that he’ll bark, and you can reward him. Later on, trying cuing “speak” when there’s no noise at the front door.

  • Give treats or other good rewards after the dog performs the behavior, even without the cue, so that he understands that it’s a behavior you really like.

  • You can also consider adding another technique in addition to the above. For example, teach the stretch or head-on-lap with luring, then add the verbal cue.

• If your dog is now responding to the verbal cue but also offering the behavior at unwanted moments (eg, he barks when you say “speak” but also barks anytime he wants attention now), simply stop giving any attention to the behavior when you haven’t cued it. Reward the absence of the behavior (eg, being quiet when he wants attention, sitting without offering a paw to shake).

One last note: If you give attention to the behavior, you will be rewarding it. So if you don’t want your dog to ever bark at the doorbell, then don’t use that situation to put barking on cue. Or if you don’t want your dog to put his head on your lap when you’re trying to work at the computer, don’t ever pet him or coo at him when he does it.

Extra practice responding to verbal cues

If you want to really emphasize verbal cues in your training - perhaps you are going to compete in a dog sport in which this is critical, or your dog will often be wandering at a distance from you - try these techniques:

• Teach a set of verbal cues for different types of reward markers (common examples are handing the dog a treat, tossing a treat, scattering several treats on the ground, tossing a ball, inviting a game of tug). This would be “pairing a verbal cue with an event.” Because the dog is highly invested in what is going to happen next, he’s much more likely to pay attention to the sounds coming out of your mouth. Start by teaching one reward marker, then a second, then mix those two up in the same session, then teach a third, then mix the three up in the same session, etc.

• Do several reps in a row of saying the verbal cue for a recently learned behavior (eg spin), then giving the prompt, then rewarding as usual. After a few successful reps, say a different verbal cue, for a behavior your dog already knows well (eg sit). If he does that (sit) correctly, reward, then go back to practicing the behavior that he doesn't know as well (spin). If he isn't listening and does the incorrect behavior, reset him (by moving around the room, or if necessary by tossing a boring/low value treat), then try again.

• Teach opposing cues (such as speak vs quiet, stay vs come, left vs right). Start with one cue first (eg left), and get it going reliably. Then introduce the second cue (right) in separate sessions. Then mix those two up in the same session. Make sure you’re not falling into a predictable pattern, such as left right left right left right.

• Practice responding to verbal cues while you change your body language from the norm. Can your dog respond to “sit” while you are lying down on the couch? How about while your back is turned? While you’re around the corner and out of sight? Any time he successfully responds, reward with a high value treat! Any time he doesn’t, adjust your body posture to be more “normal,” then give the cue a second time. If he still struggles, provide a clarifying hand signal or other prompt. Reward with a low value/boring treat if he needed help.

• Is your dog not listening but instead offering several behaviors, one after the other, every time you bring the treats out?

  • Don’t reward him for offering those behaviors without the cue.

  • Don’t practice the same behaviors in the same order each time (eg always going in the order of sit, down, roll over).

  • Teach a “default” behavior that you want your dog to do when the treats come out, such as sitting calmly or just standing still. Reward only that, and reward it generously when you pull the treats out. Ignore all the other offered behaviors.

    • Once your dog stops cycling through all the tricks in his repertoire, and assumes the default behavior instead, you can return to working on verbal cues using the techniques above.

Final notes

Always remember that in the end, behaviors happen due to consequences, not cues:

“Buddy has a pretty solid recall going! He comes running happily as soon as you call. Is that because of the word you’ve chosen as the cue for this behavior, or because you’re using just the right tone of voice? No – it’s because the behavior of running to you when you call, has a nice strong reinforcement history! So as long as that keeps up, the behavior will keep happening whenever you cue it.”

Test your assumptions about whether your dog does, in fact, know the cues you think you’re teaching:

“He looked for the bus while standing right on top of Jordan. It seems that Kip did not actually know the meaning of, “Where’s Jordan.” I was mistaken and presumed far too much. Dog owners often complain that their dogs know obedience commands and house rules. They say, “He KNOWS sit, but he won’t do it.””

Puppy socialization

Providing appropriate socialization is a critical part of raising your puppy to be a well-adjusted adult dog, one who welcomes guests into the home, walks calmly and confidently in public, and can travel with the family. It is the process of introducing your puppy to the wider world, to help prevent fear and aggression later in life. It is also the process of teaching your puppy how to behave out there, to help prevent lunging and barking and over-excitement around other dogs, skateboards, scooters, etc.

The critical socialization period begins at 3 weeks old and ends between 12 and 16 weeks old. That means that the process of safe, controlled socialization should already be started by the breeder or rescue you get your puppy from.

Wait, shouldn’t I wait to take my puppy out of the house until they have all their vaccinations done? What if my puppy gets sick?

In a word: no! A puppy who is sequestered indoors is significantly more likely to have problems with fear and aggression later in life. Here are several resources on why socialization is so important.

The American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior's Position Statement on Puppy Socialization (PDF):

“The Primary and most important time for puppy socialization is the first three months of life. During this time puppies should be exposed to as many new people, animals, stimuli and environments as can be achieved safely and without causing over- stimulation manifested as excessive fear, withdrawal or avoidance behavior. For this reason, the American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior believes that it should be the standard of care for puppies to receive such socialization before they are fully vaccinated.

Because the first three months are the period when sociability outweighs fear, this is the primary window of opportunity for puppies to adapt to new people, animals, and experiences. Incomplete or improper socialization during this important time can increase the risk of behavioral problems later in life including fear, avoidance, and/or aggression. Behavioral problems are the greatest threat to the owner-dog bond. In fact, behavioral problems are the number one cause of relinquishment to shelters. Behavioral issues, not infectious diseases, are the number one cause of death for dogs under three years of age.”

Puppy Vaccination and Early Socialization Should Go Together (PDF)

“Experience and epidemiologic data support the relative safety and lack of transmission of disease in these puppy socialization classes over the past 10 years in many parts of the United States. In fact; the risk of a dog dying because of infection with distemper or parvo virus disease is far less than the much higher risk of a dog dying (euthanasia) because of a behavior problem. Many veterinarians are now offering new puppy owners, puppy socialization classes in their hospitals or nearby training facilities with assistance of trainers and behaviorists. This emphasizes the importance of early socialization and training as important parts of a wellness plan for every puppy. We need to recognize that this special sensitive period for learning is the best opportunity we have to influence behavior for dogs and the most important and longest lasting part of a total wellness plan.”

2013 Study: Frequency of Parvovirus in Vaccinated Puppies that Attended Puppy Socialization Classes

“Socialization is one method of preventing behavior problems in dogs; however, some oppose socialization before 16 wk of age due to the risk of contracting infectious diseases. The objectives of this study were to determine if puppies that attended puppy socialization classes and were vaccinated by a veterinarian at least once were at an increased risk of confirmed canine parvovirus (CPV) infection compared with puppies that did not attend classes... Results indicated that vaccinated puppies attending socialization classes were at no greater risk of CPV infection than vaccinated puppies that did not attend those classes.”

Why you should take your urban puppy to socials after just one set of shots

“While not a perfect analogy, a puppy’s openness to learning socials skills is similar to the way young children learn new languages effortlessly. Studies have shown that children younger than seven years old easily pick up new languages because their brains are wired to readily incorporate the words, grammar and structure of multiple languages. Like the puppy socialization period that ends at 12 weeks, this window closes for children around seven years old, after which language acquisition becomes far more difficult. You can place a 6-year old child in a Mandarin immersion class for a year and she will come out fluent in the language but if I were to attend the same class, I would likely still be struggling with the basics.”

Early Puppy Socialization Classes: Weighing the risks vs. benefits

“Given the fact that behavior problems are the No. 1 cause of relinquishment to shelters, along with the fact that 56% of dogs that enter shelters in the United States are euthanized, and that puppy classes help prevent behavior problems and increase the likelihood of retention in the home, there must be evidence of phenomenal risk of infectious disease transmission associated with early socialization classes to warrant holding puppies back. And there is no such evidence to date. In fact, renowned behaviorist Dr. R. K. Anderson, a longtime advocate for early socialization, has more than a decade of experience and data supporting the relative safety and lack of disease transmission in puppy socialization classes in many parts of the United States.

It's unfortunate that the behavioral gains from puppy class are under such tight age constraints. The most sound advice we [veterinarians] can give clients is to acknowledge the small risk of infectious disease transmission and recommend well-run puppy socialization classes on the grounds that the relative risk is so low. Puppies, owners, and society stand to benefit enormously at the cost of a relatively small risk of exposure to a treatable infection.”

Puppy Vaccinations: Why Puppies Need a Series of Shots

“Our current vaccines are excellent at stimulating immunity in older puppies in just one or two shots. However, puppies who nursed on their mother’s milk have maternal antibodies in their blood that block the immune system from responding to these vaccines. These circulating maternal antibodies protect them from bacterial and viral assault while the puppy’s immune system is maturing. But they also prevent the puppy’s immune system from becoming activated by vaccines.”

Okay, I’m sold. Now how do I do it?

I recommend starting with these articles written by other trainers:

Puppy Socialization… What Actually Is It??

“The definition I like for puppy socialization is “the process of teaching a puppy to live and behave in the situations it will encounter throughout its life.”... All in all, socialization is a very personal process. You are not just shaping your dog to live in the human world, you are shaping him to live in YOUR world. It’s important to me that my dogs are confident and comfortable in sport situations as I do have many competition goals for them, but I live with them too so it’s equally (or more, sometimes) important that they can settle in the house, be polite on a hiking trail, and work as demo or decoy dogs for my clients. What are your goals for your dog, and what type of dog do you want to build?”

Socialization is More Than Mere Exposure - AVSAB

“You should set up social experiences in graded steps that reflect your puppy’s personality and behavior. If you notice that your puppy seems timid or fearful in new situations, you should move more slowly and deliberately in terms of the intensity of exposure than you would if your puppy is always jolly and exuberant. Pay attention to your puppy’s approach versus retreat behavior and other body language indicators.”

Overzealous Greetings (and Other Tales of Toddlers and Puppies)

“responsible dog owners can teach their charges to be polite around other dogs. Socializing your dog appropriately helps him grow into a model citizen of canine society.

So, how do I guide my foster dogs through appropriate interactions? First of all, I focus on teaching them to greet other dogs calmly. If puppies squeal and lunge in excitement every time they see a new dog, they grow into adult dogs who rush up to other dogs or react explosively on leash at the sight of each new dog. This isn’t a healthy social reaction, and preventing this behavior from developing is much easier and faster than fixing it once it’s become a habit.”

Having Trouble Walking Your Puppy? Try Less Skinner and More Darwin.

“I think it’s helpful for puppy owners to understand that the “walk” part of the walk is really more for you than the puppy. What the puppy needs to do is sniff and explore. Stop and go as he pleases. Sometimes just stand there and smell the air…

Here is a video of a walk I took with my 16-week-old puppy. You can see I’m following him for the most part. When I really need him to move along, he has the skills to do that for a few steps. This is a reasonable goal for a “walk” with a puppy this age.”

Keeping, Raising and Showing Littermates

“One should only keep multiple puppies if they truly have the time to give each puppy what they need in terms of training, medical care, socialization, grooming, etc. If you can’t or if you aren’t sure if you can, you should probably not take on more than one. If you do decide to keep multiple puppies, here are some things to consider and tips that may help you bring them up successfully.”

I also like this PDF from Operation Socialization and this graphic by Sara Reusche and Lili Chin.

If you enjoy listening to podcasts, check out The Bitey End of the Dog: “Puppies! Puppies! Puppies! A Deep Dive into Socialization and Building Resiliency with Kathy Callahan.” Links on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, Overcast or browser.

Need a cheat sheet? Here are the bullet points.

• Invite people over to your house to play with the pup. Make sure that they wash their hands and haven’t just been petting unknown dogs.

• Take your puppy over to visit other people’s houses. Make sure to bring supplies to clean up potty accidents, just in case.

• Take your puppy out and about in a sling, pack, stroller, or just carrying them to keep them up off the ground. Walk around the neighborhood, shopping areas, and into pet-friendly stores.

  • Most home improvement stores (eg Home Depot, Lowe’s, Ace) welcome dogs. JoAnn is officially pet-friendly in all their locations. Many other stores will allow you to carry in small puppies if you ask.

• Bring your pup on errands in the car. While one person takes care of business, the other can sit with the pup and look out the window, or have the puppy in your lap with the car door open. (See information about puppy carsickness here.)

• Hang out at the park or beach with your pup on a large blanket, using a leash or pen to keep them close by.

• If you want your puppy to be comfortable with particular activities when they’re grown up, starting introducing those things now. For example, start teaching your puppy to swim, or introduce him to livestock, or get started on grooming training.

• Arrange play dates with other friendly, healthy, vaccinated dogs who haven’t recently been to the dog park.

• Attend puppy classes - see below for how to pick a good puppy class.

• Make sure that anyone interacting with your puppy - especially kids - pets gently, plays appropriately, and allows the puppy to move away if they want to. (See resources for kids and dogs here.)

• Make sure that your puppy is having a good time. Things to look for:

  • Wagging tail

  • Happy to explore and sniff around

  • Willingness to play and eat treats

  • Able to respond to trained cues

• If your puppy gets overwhelmed (hiding, tucked tail, sitting very still and not engaging), let him retreat to safety and reassure him. Give him time to recover and be ready to explore again.

• If your puppy is regressing in their socialization, or showing sudden fear toward specific things, they may be in a fear period. Follow the suggestions in this article or consult with a professional trainer who uses positive methods to help you provide desensitization and counter-conditioning.

How to pick a puppy class

Not all training classes are created equal. You want to make sure that:

• The facility is cleaned with appropriate products (such as KennelSol) to reduce possible transmission of pathogens.

• Puppies are required to be up to date on vaccinations per their veterinarian’s advice, and proof is provided to the trainer.

• Only positive training methods are used. (E.g., no collar corrections on choke chains or prong collars, no swatting puppies for mouthing, no grabbing by the scruff or pinning down to punish. Instead, puppies are guided to choose desirable behaviors and rewarded with treats, play, and petting, while undesirable behaviors are prevented or redirected.)

• Puppies that are over-excited - barking, pouncing, pulling on leash - are given help to calm down via decreasing visibility, moving them farther away, providing chews or enrichment items, and/or rewarding appropriate behaviors.

• Playtime is not a “free for all” between all of the puppies. Not all pups can play together nicely - different sizes and levels of energy and confidence can easily lead to bullying if not carefully monitored. Pens and leashes are used to help shier and smaller puppies have a good socialization experience.

• Breaks are given during playtime to help moderate arousal levels and help puppies learn to listen around distractions.

• All of the puppy owners are helping teach manners by giving attention to puppies with “four on the floor,” not allowing them to snatch treats, and breaking up play as needed to redirect inappropriate behavior or provide breaks.

Teaching a dog to swim

Many of my clients have pools and would like to teach their dogs to swim, for both safety and exercise. Not all dogs are natural swimmers, though, and some are downright terrified of being submerged. Let’s break this down into smaller steps, to help our dogs gain confidence and make positive associations with first playing, and then swimming, in water.

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• Start with a baby pool, like the classic blue plastic ones, or an appropriately-sized dog pool.

  • Make sure your dog is comfortable getting in and out of it while it’s dry - for tiny dogs, you can create steps or ramps (see photo), or cut the side down for them (credit to Emily Larlham/KikoPup for the idea, shown here).

  • Your dog may need a non-slip surface placed into the pool to feel more confident. You can use nonslip bathtub mats, rubber drainage mats, or a small rug.

  • Do training sessions in which you encourage your dog to get in and out of the pool, using toys and treats to make it fun. Over time, slowly increase the amount of water in the pool.

  • Make sure to play on hotter days, so the water feels cool and comfortable for your dog.

• Here’s a brilliant game that one of my clients came up with: setting bowls with treats on the surface of the water. They’ll gently float around as your dog gets into and moves through the water, challenging him to wade around more.

• Another game that may help is playing “keep away” with a stream of water from a hose (credit to Emily Larlham/KikoPup for the idea, shown here).

• When you are transitioning from the baby pool to your full-sized one, make sure that your pool steps are appropriately sized. For smaller dogs, you may need to create more steps by submerging bricks or pavers. Alternatively, you can purchase or create a pool ramp. The shallower the entry point, the easier it will be for your dog to feel comfortable venturing farther in.

  • If you can locate a dog-friendly beach, stream, or lake with a shallow entry point, that will also give your dog a valuable opportunity to play and practice being in water.

• Get into the water with your dog and encourage him to join you. Use his favorite toys and treats along with lots of happy talk.

  • Always let the dog choose whether he wants to get in, and when he wants to leave. Never toss a dog in or prevent him from exiting the water.

  • As he gains confidence, just encourage him to go farther and farther in, and incorporate as much play as your dog wants.

• Consider getting a life jacket, especially for stocky/heavy breeds, dogs with short legs, and those with short muzzles (brachycephalic). Dogs who can’t seem to balance properly, and end up flailing with their front legs while their back legs sink, also benefit from life vests.

• If your dog is social, meet up with others who have water-loving dogs, to model the behavior you want.

A few other safety considerations:

• Consider fencing your pool until your dog is able to swim well enough that he can exit the pool from every spot. (Consider keeping that fencing up even after, just in case, especially if you have children.)

• Always have fresh water available near the pool, so that your dog has the option to drink that instead of chemical-laden pool water (or bacteria-laden stream/lake water).

• Beware of water intoxication, when a dog has ingested dangerous levels of water. (This is more likely to happen when a dog is grabbing toys in water or catching water from a hose than from calm swimming with their mouth closed.)

• Beware of toxic blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in natural bodies of water.

• Watch out for sunburn, especially for dogs with short, sparse fur and light-colored skin pigment.

Dog Parks

Dog parks sound like a great idea - a place for dogs to play and hang out, off leash, with their kin. For many dogs, they can be a great outlet for their energy and a place to make friends. Some dogs even start out shy, but blossom over time.

However things don’t always go smoothly. Sometimes what starts out as play - such as taking a fast lap around with one play partner - can turn scary if multiple dogs join in and end up chasing or piling onto a single dog. Sometimes a dog who is playful but doesn’t know when to back off will bully another dog into hiding under a table or chair and not let it escape. Fights can break out if someone gets bitten too hard or is guarding their owner or toy. Play that is too high in intensity can “tip” into aggression (when dogs get too worked up, one party is no longer having fun, and suddenly teeth are flashing). These things can lead to a dog becoming less comfortable with other dogs, and therefore overly defensive or even aggressive. In worst case scenarios, dogs end up needing stitches or even dying. (A quick Google search for “dog park” plus words like “horror,” “trauma,” “tragedy,” “death,” etc will bring up plenty of examples.) (By the way, I’ve also heard anecdotes in which the dogs were fine, but it’s the other owners who are aggressive!)

So how can you protect your dog and help him practice good social skills at the dog park?

First, know your own dog, especially rescues

Taking a brand-new rescue dog into a dog park and letting it off leash can be a dangerous proposition. You should first have an idea of your dog’s social skills and interest level in socializing.

• Ask for as much history of your dog’s previous social experiences as you can get. Was the dog fostered or kenneled with other dogs? Did the shelter or rescue group do any socializing?

• Take your dog for several walks and watch how he reacts to the sight of other walkers. If everyone looks calm and interested, you can ask the other owners if it’s okay to do a quick meet and greet.

• Ask neighbors, friends, and family with calm, well-behaved dogs if they can meet. (Article on introducing dogs safely is in the queue.)

• Some trainers (including myself) can provide an assessment by doing careful introductions to pre-selected dogs.

• Many daycares and boarding businesses will do a free assessment of your dog’s social skills as a requirement for services.

If you’ve raised your dog since puppyhood or you’ve already taken the above steps for your rescue dog, then next consider the following:

• Does your dog actually want to hang out with other dogs, beyond the initial butt sniffing?

• Is your dog intimidated by larger dogs, or overly pushy with smaller or younger ones?

• Is your dog easily riled up if there’s a lot of activity?

• Does your dog get very upset if he’s humped, sniffed intently, someone barks in his face, or nips his legs or flanks?

• Would you be able to keep your dog away from another that’s looking scared or unfriendly?

• What type of play does your dog like - running, jumping up and climbing all over other dogs, biting faces/necks, hip checks, rolling over and playing “submissive”?

Going into the park

• Watch the other dogs before you go in. The answers to these questions will guide you in deciding whether you should actually take your dog inside. Sometimes, you may see things that concern you or you know your dog won’t respond well to. If that’s the case, turn around and take your dog for a leash walk instead, or drive to a different park.

  • How many other dogs are there? More dogs = more likely to have ganging up.

  • What’s the energy level of the group? Are they riled up? Are they all looking bored and likely to jump up and come mob your dog? Or is there already polite mingling happening, that your dog could easily slip into?

  • What type of play is happening (if any), and is it a type that your dog enjoys, tolerates, or takes offense to?

  • Is there one dog that’s circling the other players, then jumping in to take potshots?

  • Is there a dog who is acting unfriendly or very scared?

  • Is there a dog who is obsessively humping others?

  • Are there toys out that your dog is going to guard aggressively?

• Big vs small dogs

  • Some parks have separate areas for big vs small dogs, which is generally safer. Be careful bringing your small dog into a mixed size park - it’s much easier for them to get bullied, knocked over, or even treated as prey.

  • If you have a big dog, be respectful of the small dog area - those little guys might be genuinely scared of yours.

  • Extreme caution should be taken if you have a dog with predatory drive. As a personal anecdote, I once had my Irish Wolfhound (a large sighthound, who are bred to chase and catch prey) stretching her legs at a dog park during travel, and someone started to approach with a smaller dog who was squealing in a high pitch on their way in. My hound perked her ears and tensed, and I immediately put her on leash and turned to leave the park. She has never shown any predatory behavior toward other dogs, even toy-sized breeds, but why take the chances when the consequences could be dire? (Fortunately once the other dog was let off leash and stopped squealing, plus Terra had walked past and saw that it was actually a dog and not a prey animal, she relaxed again. Good girl.)

• Walk around the park perimeter first

  • This is especially useful if your dog is nervous about greetings, and to avoid mobbing at the gate.

  • Let the dogs sniff through the fence. Just redirect to a calmer behavior if your dog starts to get over-excited and is barking or jumping on the fence. Encourage him to move along.

• At the gate

  • As above, let the dogs get some initial sniffs done at the gate before you open, to reduce mobbing.

• Once inside the park

  • Walk around instead of sitting in one spot. This keeps the dogs moving, which helps reduce the intensity of play (and therefore incidents of play “tipping” into aggression). It also encourages the dogs to pay more attention to their owners.

  • Practice calling your dog to you, leashing him up, throwing him a party, then letting him loose to play again. By making this a regular part of the dog park routine, your dog won’t play “keep away” when it’s time to really leave.

  • Monitor your dog’s body language and play behavior - see more info below.

Treats or no?

Some people frown on taking any treats into the park. It’s true that you might get unwanted attention from dogs that are very “foody,” and some dogs will guard food intensely. On the other hand, it’s an extremely useful tool for training your dog to respond to “come” and other cues around distractions - especially if you bring high value treats that your dog loves. Here’s how to decrease the likelihood of any problems:

• Make sure your treats are in a secure pouch or bag, with no chances of spilling out if a dog tries to stick their nose inside or jumps on you.

• When you are feeding your dog, do it away from everyone else. That may mean that you praise your dog for something good (like coming to you), then lead them away for several steps before slipping them a treat.

• Be careful not to drop your food on the ground. If you have butterfingers or your dog gets “sharky” when excited, try using a Bark Pouch or other food in a tube.

• If the other dogs are taking notice of your food, hold the pouch up high and out of their reach, such as under your armpit, or by your neck. (I don’t recommend holding it up and out in the air, as many dogs see this as an invitation to jump, as if for a toy.)

• Keep moving around the park, which will make other dogs lose interested in you more quickly, as well as decrease congregating - which makes guarding more likely.

• Don’t feed anyone else’s dog without permission. Besides encouraging begging behavior, this may be dangerous if that dog has severe allergies or digestive issues.

Monitoring dog play

Here are the basics you should know to keep everyone safe and happy.

• Dogs should be taking breaks, even if they are just brief pauses - such as the more assertive dog pausing for a second, and seeing his play partner happily re-engage by jumping back in. Play without any breaks is prone to escalating in intensity, which can lead to a dog biting too hard, feeling overwhelmed and defensive, or “tipping” into aggression.

  • If they’re not taking breaks, call your dog to you. You may have to ask the other owner to also call their own dog, to make it easier to interrupt play.

  • Walking around the park will also help lower intensity, as your dog takes pauses to check in on your location (hopefully!).

• Watch out for dogs getting cornered or trying to hide under tables/chairs and not being able to come out. This often happens when a dog wants a break, but their playmate(s) are not backing off. It’s also more likely when you have more than 2 dogs playing with each other.

• Many dogs like a good game of chase, but this game is likely to result in cornering, mobbing, or escalating intensity, so be ready to interrupt and give breaks as needed. It’s a good sign if you see the dogs take a break, and then the one who was being chased reinitiates the game themselves.

• Wrestling and pinning is a popular dog game but again, you want to monitor and be ready to give breaks. Look for the dog on the bottom to be intentionally rolling onto their side/back and inviting the play, rather than being slammed down. If the dog on top is not letting them up, biting without letting go, or pinning again as soon as the other dog tries to get up, then institute a break.

• Mismatches in play style will happen. Sometimes they are clearly based in genetics (for example, many herding and sighthound breeds like to play chase, while retrievers like to wrestle, and bully breeds tend to body slam). Other times, it’s due to individual quirks and preferences, or a positive or negative history with that play style. If it’s causing repeated conflict, the mismatched dogs should be kept apart, even leaving the dog park if necessary.

• Watch out for over-arousal during play, as this is often a precursor to “tipping,” as well as other unwanted behaviors. Signs of over-arousal include:

  • Play without breaks

  • Changes in pitch of vocalizations (either getting higher or lower than usual)

  • More frenzied movement

  • Not responding to cues as well as usual

  • Not stopping when the other dog wants a break

  • Humping - humping is a commonly misunderstood behavior. The most common cause for it in dog parks is that a dog wants to interact with another, is worked up, and has a dearth of prosocial skills - leading to things like incessant barking in the other dog’s face, jumping on top of them even when told off, or humping.

Breaking up a dog fight

It’s scary, but it’s bound to happen that sometimes dogs get pissed off at each other. The first thing to do is take a breath and assess: is this just a noisy scuffle with a lot of posturing and teeth bared, but the dogs aren’t really trying to hurt each other? This is much, much more common than a real fight in which the dogs are trying to take each other down. And if it’s just a noisy scuffle - an argument - then you don’t need to step in. It will be over within a few seconds. Help the dogs move away from each other and calm down as needed.

If your dog is repeatedly getting into scuffles, you should bring in a professional trainer to assess what is happening and whether he should be going to dog parks. (See below for alternatives.) Or if he’s getting into repeated scuffles with one specific dog, they should be kept separate from each other.

If your dog gets into a “real” fight, and injures another dog, you should carefully separate the dogs, exchange contact info with the other owner, then leave the park. Contact a professional trainer to discuss what happened and appropriate future socialization for your dog.

Here’s how to step in when needed:

• Keep your hands away from the bitey parts. I know this sounds obvious, but often the first instinct we have is to reach for dogs’ collars to gain control over them. This is a good way to get bitten on the hand. (Ask me how I know!)

• Try to interrupt the fight by placing a physical object between the dogs, if available.

• A blast from a hose will interrupt most fights.

• Otherwise, grab the dog from behind, by putting your hands where the rear legs meet the abdomen and pulling back and up.

• Beware of redirected bites - when a dog feels someone grab them and reacts without pausing to consider who/what that was. If you keep moving the dog backwards with their butt in the air - like a wheelbarrow - they cannot plant their front feet down and whip around to bite. Don’t let go until both dogs have been secured and seem aware of their surroundings rather than just reacting.

Alternatives to dog parks

What if you read the above information and realize that your dog is not a “dog park dog?” That’s okay! It’s normal for dogs to be selective about who they want to hang out with, rather than wanting to go into the mosh pit - especially as they mature out of puppyhood and adolescence. This is common among many species, including humans - as kids, we’ll often play with any other kids around, but later we become more choosy about who we want to spend time with.

Here are other options to explore:

• Smaller gatherings at unofficial off leash areas, especially if there’s a consistent group showing up rather than “strangers” every time.

• Going to the regular dog park during off peak hours, when there are only a few other dogs, at most, with plenty of space for each dog to do their own thing.

• One on one play dates with pre-selected dogs. These may be dogs that your dog liked when he did go to the dog park, or compatible dogs belonging to friends, family, or neighbors.

• Not socializing with other dogs, but giving your dog plenty of other forms of enrichment, exercise, and social time with humans. This can still be a fulfilling life.

Spaying and Neutering

Thanks to strong pressure to reduce the numbers of dogs looking for homes - and often ending up euthanized - in the US, it has become the norm to spay and neuter our pets. These procedures are often done at or before the age of 6 months, so that dogs do not reach reproductive age with gonads intact. But what are the side effects of removing our dogs’ normal reproductive hormones - often before puberty - along with those body parts? During the past 30 years, more and more researchers have been looking at the issue, and showing that it’s time to revise the blanket statement that all “responsible” dog owners get their pets spayed and neutered by 6 months old.

What does the science say?

Gonadectomy – Rethinking Long-Held Beliefs, by Chris Zink DVM PhD, DACVP, DACVSMR, CCRT, CVSMT, CVA (2018)

The article above neatly summarizes the results of nearly all of the relevant research on spaying and neutering as of 2018. It is a must-read for anyone seeking a quick introduction to the topic, with 52 sources for you to then dive into for a comprehensive look at the current science. It includes orthopedic considerations, rates of cancer, behavioral issues, and other health considerations (eg, urinary incontinence, hypothyroidism).

Spay and Neuter Surgery’s Effects on Dog Health, by David Lane, DVM (Nov 2018)

This is another article that summarizes much of the current research as of 2018 - just a different style and different format. It includes an easy-to-read table of pros and cons for spaying and neutering.

Neutering Causes Behavior Problems in Male Dogs: Neutered male dogs are more likely to show aggression and fear-related behavior, by Stanley Coren PhD., DSc, FRSC. (May 9, 2018)

“As in previous studies, the new data clearly shows that the positive behavioral effects that were expected from neutering did not occur, and if anything, the behaviors of neutered male dogs tended to be considerably less desirable. Of the 100 behaviors assessed, 40 showed statistically significant differences between the castrated and intact dogs. Only four of these behaviors showed a more positive outcome as a result of neutering...
The pattern of these results is quite clear: Neutering male dogs causes an increase in aggressive behavior, fearful behavior, over-excitability, and a variety of other miscellaneous, undesirable behaviors. What is also clear is that early neutering produces an even greater negative effect on behaviors.”

Behavioral and Physical Effects of Spaying and Neutering Domestic Dogs (Canis familiaris): Summary of findings detailed in a Masters thesis submitted to and accepted by Hunter College by Parvene Farhoody in May, 2010.

“The above data is just a small sample of the significant data that were determined in this study. By using large a sample of dogs than any used previously to examine behavior in dogs, we found significant correlations between neutering dogs and increases in aggression, fear and anxiety, and excitability, regardless of the age at which the dog was neutered. There were also significant correlations between neutering and decreases in trainability and responsiveness to cues. The other three behavioral categories examined (miscellaneous behavior problems, attachment and attention-seeking behavior, and separation-related behavior) showed some association with neutering, but these differed more substantially depending on the age at which the dog was neutered. The overall trend seen in all these behavioral data was that the earlier the dog was neutered, the more negative the effect on the behavior. A difference in bone length was found between neutered and intact dogs, suggesting that neutering has an effect on bone growth, which may be related to other orthopedic effects documented in the literature. Examination of changes in bone length of gonadectomized dogs is continuing.”

Prevalence and Risk Factors for Obesity in Adult Dogs from Private US Veterinary Practices (2006)

“Neutered males and spayed females (Figure 2) had the highest prevalence of overweight (32.0% and 32.6%) and obesity (5.5% and 5.6%); intact males had the lowest prevalence of overweight (20.0%) and obesity (3.6%)...
Intact dogs were underrepresented in the overweight and obese categories. The overweight/obesity risk for neutered dogs reported here is also consistent with other study results.2,18 Multiple studies have documented a link between spaying or neutering and decreased energy requirements. 19-23”

Visual impacts of pediatric spay/neuter

There is often a clear visual difference between dogs spayed/neutered before puberty versus well after (or not at all). Dogs neutered early will be taller due to longer leg bones, and with more narrow heads and rib cages. They do not “fill out” the way that a fully mature dog usually does. While aesthetics is a minor consideration compared to the health and behavioral findings above, this is a symptom of the differences in bone growth when sex hormones are removed early in development.

“Pictured are two littermates at 10 months of age: The puppy on the left was spayed at 5 months of age and the puppy on the right is intact. The puppy that was spayed prematurely has longer legs, a leaner build, and less developed skull. The intact puppy has a more proportionate build and his appearance is closer to breed standard.” From Valor K9 Academy.

The same female dog, pictured before and after her first heat cycle. Note the expansion of her rib cage and more developed head/jowls. From Two Gun Kennels.

Changes in coat

In addition, a minority of spayed/neutered dogs get what is colloquially called “spay coat” (this term often gets used for both males and females, but “neuter coat” can be used for males). This is a change in length and texture of their fur, which leads to a fluffy or “woolly” appearance. It may be that the undercoat is growing longer and thicker and/or the guard hairs are more sparse or soft. This change is associated with increased matting and therefore requires more grooming. Again, this is not a serious issue all by itself, but it does reflect the fact that “sex hormones” affect more than just the dog’s ability to reproduce.

Photo by Dr Shiri Hoshen

Photo by Dr Shiri Hoshen

So what should you do?

As stated by veterinarian Dr Benjamin Hart, “As we learn the consequences, I think we owe it to our clients to give them that information and the dignity of the decision. Let’s put it on the table and let them decide.”

There are real conveniences to having your dog spayed or neutered. The biggest is peace of mind regarding pregnancy, especially if you have a female dog. No one wants an “oops” litter and the responsibility of raising and rehoming pups they didn’t plan for! Also with females, no dealing with heat cycles, which can be messy and cause mood shifts. Neutered males are less likely to roam, urine mark, and harass sexy female dogs. It is easier to travel with a spayed/neutered dog, and much easier to find a place to board them if needed. City/county licensing fees are often much cheaper for neutered than for intact animals.

So most owners still want to neuter their pets; it’s just a question of when?

UC Davis has published recommendations on the timing of spay/neuter for 35 different breeds, as well as mixed breed dogs divided into 5 weight categories. These recommendations are based on occurrences of joint disorders, cancers, pyometra (in females), and urinary incontinence (in females). However some of the included breeds and the giant mixed breed weight category utilize low numbers (eg, 133 Shetland Sheepdogs, 94 Saint Bernards, 116 Collies, 258 giant mixed breeds) - so in my personal opinion, it’s questionable how much weight should be given to the affected recommendations. It is a good place to start, but it is far from a complete picture.

Note that for the included giant breed dogs - Great Danes, Irish Wolfhounds, Saint Bernard, and mixed breeds weighing 87+ lbs - they state variations of “given the large body size, and physiology of late musculoskeletal development, neutering well-beyond year 1 should be considered.”

Anecdotally, as orthopedic effects are the most visually obvious difference between dogs given pediatric neuters versus left intact, and the related joint concerns were the first ones to be widely raised and spread among the general pet owning populace, many owners are choosing to neuter after their dogs are fully grown and growth plates are closed. X-rays can confirm when an individual dog’s growth plates are closed, but rules of thumb are:

• Small dogs (<20 lbs): 6-8 months

• Medium dogs (21-50 lbs): 12 months

• Large dogs (51-100 lbs): 12-18 months

• X-Large dogs (100+ lbs): 24 months

Living with intact dogs

What if you decide that you’d rather keep your dog intact (not spayed/neutered), at least until they’re fully grown? What is it really like to live with an intact dog?

Intact females

Female dogs go into “heat” or “heat cycles” usually twice a year. (Giant breeds and some primitive breeds like Basenjis may cycle less frequently.) This is when their body is preparing to grow puppies and they are fertile. The first cycle can occur as young as 6 months for toy breeds to over 1 year of age for giant breeds. (If you got your pup from a good breeder, they will be able to tell you when females in their lines tend to first come into heat.)

You may notice that her vulva is swollen and that she is occasionally dripping a bloody discharge. (It often shows as little dots where she’s been lying or sitting.) Some females will lick themselves (and even your floor or furniture) clean, while others must wear “panties” or “britches” to keep the mess off your furniture. You may notice that your girl is moody or clingy during her cycle, but others don’t show any behavioral changes.

Your female should not be left outdoors unattended, as there are common stories of males hopping fences or digging under to find the source of the sexy smells. Do not take her to dog parks or other places that males may be off leash. Be careful even with neutered males, as they can still mate and tie, even if no pregnancy would result. (Height differences and inexperience can lead to injury during mating and while tied.)

Once the swelling and discharge have faded away, your female is no longer fertile and can go back to living life as normal. The entire cycle takes 2-4 weeks. If you are taking a training class, ask the instructor what their policy is. In sports classes, it’s common for females in heat to still attend as long as they wear panties.

Separately from dealing with heat cycles, intact girls are at higher risk of mammary cancer and pyometra (a serious infection of the uterus, often requiring an emergency spay).

Intact males

Males don’t cycle; they are continually fertile and ready for action. They are more likely to want to roam and show increased interested in females (sometimes even if the female is spayed). It is important with any dog, of course, that they not be allowed to roam free in the neighborhood.

Intact males are more likely to urine mark (frequently lift legs and pee small amounts), though this is common among neutered males, as well. Sometimes remedial potty training is needed if an adolescent male starts to urine mark in the house.

Anecdotally, many people report that neutered males will be quicker to aggress toward intact males when at dog parks.

Baseline Needs Before Training

I adapted this idea from Sarah Stremming’s “Four Steps to Behavioral Wellness.” These are baseline needs that we must meet for our dogs before we can expect training to have any significant effect on their behavior. Sometimes addressing these needs is in fact all you need to remove problematic behaviors.

Exercise

Ever heard the phrase “a tired dog is a good dog”? While physical exercise won’t solve anxiety issues like separation anxiety, it has a huge impact on nuisance behaviors like jumping and pulling and barking. Any time you are asking your dog to exhibit self control in exciting situations, you must also be providing an appropriate outlet for their energy - they can’t just tamp all of it down without it spilling over in other contexts. Here is an article with all kinds of ideas for providing your dog with physical exercise.

Enrichment

Enrichment refers to activities your dog can engage in that provide mental exercise and entertainment. This is particularly important for “busy” dogs who get into trouble when bored. This is just as important as physical exercise, especially if there are long periods of time that your dog is being asked to just chill at home. The best enrichment strategies for any particular dog are usually ones that enable him to express his natural “doggy” behaviors in an appropriate way. Here is an article with all kinds of ideas for providing your dog with mental enrichment.

Health

Improper diet, gastrointestinal inflammation and other metabolic diseases, joint pain, sprained muscles, and many other health problems can cause dogs to be irritable, aggressive, anxious, impulsive, or non-responsive to training/“stubborn.” There is even a study linking noise sensitivities with pain in dogs. Think about how hard it is to focus on work when you have a headache, or have patience with your toddler climbing all over you when you’re experiencing back pain, or drive safely when you’re exhausted. These are some of the areas we want to look at when it comes to making sure that our dogs are in good health:

• Pain: A comprehensive pain examination by your vet can bring injuries to light or rule them out. In some cases, an appointment with a specialist such as a neurologist may be warranted. You can also empower yourself to watch for injuries by watching (or even video taping) your dog’s walking and trotting gaits, doing gentle stretches, and teaching tricks that have your dog moving in a variety of ways. Watch for imbalances between left and right, changes in willingness to perform a trick, and other differences in movement. Don’t write off intermittent limps or skips in your dog’s steps. If pain is suspected but can’t be pinned down, ask your vet about trying a test course of pain medication. If your dog’s behavior improves on the meds and regresses when taken off, you know that you need to dig further. Furthermore, “If the first analgesia trial does not provide results, it is appropriate to try another type of analgesic with a different mechanism of action, in case the first was not right for that dog’s particular issue. Mills argues that the risk of side effects can be minimized and that the benefits of using pain medication will normally outweigh the risks.”

• X-rays: These may reveal arthritis, joint problems (such as hip dysplasia), or other hidden reasons for pain that causes irritability, aggression, or reluctance to perform certain behaviors.

• Blood work: A full chemistry profile and complete blood count (CBC) may reveal underlying health conditions that were not yet showing obvious symptoms to the owner, but were felt by the dog and affecting his behavior. For example, aggression is a known possible side effect of hypothyroidism, while decreased functionality of other organs may present as “stubbornness” or anxiety because the dog isn’t feeling well.

• Urinary analysis: Any sudden changes in potty training for an adult dog should be followed by a urinary analysis. Some puppies that are particularly difficult to potty train may have UTIs.

• Dental cleaning: Jaw and tooth pain may be difficult for a pet owner to diagnose, but be causing reluctance to eat or sensitivity to handling around the head/neck. Keep up with brushing your dog’s teeth and dental cleaning per your vet’s recommendations. Beware of anesthesia-free dental cleanings.

• Diet & GI health: Proper canine diets are a controversial subject. I personally have fed my own dogs everything ranging from premade raw food, homemade raw food, premade cooked and frozen food, to grain-free kibble as well as kibble containing grains like wheat. There is a lot of science that has been done on canine nutrition and foods , yet a LOT that still needs to be done. Personally, rather than obsessing over finding just the right foods, I choose to frequently switch up my dogs’ diets - allowing variety to hopefully make up for the deficiencies of any one type. By switching around, you may notice patterns such as your dog getting ear infections or itchy skin on ingredient X, or seemingly random bouts of diarrhea on food Y, or more impulsive behavior or irritability caused by inflammation with product Z.

• Sleep: If you’re staying home with busy kids or leaving your dog in the backyard during the day, he may be missing out on needed sleep. Just like humans, dogs benefit from having quiet, dark areas to nap in as needed, and will be cranky and unfocused if sleep deprived. This is especially important for puppies, who famously get “bitey” when overly tired. Puppies typically need 18-20 hours of sleep a day, while adults spend roughly 50% of the day in deep sleep and 30% awake but resting. (See this post on puppy schedules.)

• Anxiolytic Medication: For dogs with severe anxiety issues, anxiolytic meds are a game changer. Just like you wouldn’t withhold medication for pain or a liver problem because you expect the dog to “get over it,” providing medication for severe anxiety or aggression is the humane thing to do. Sometimes brains need just as much help as broken bones or infected scratches.

If you suspect that something is physically wrong but your vet cannot find an obvious cause during a physical examination, don’t give up! Sometimes it can take some digging (see this post and comments below for many examples), but there is evidence that “a conservative estimate of around a third of referred [behavior problem] cases involve some form of painful condition, and in some instances, the figure may be nearly 80%.”

Communication

Clear communication is definitely a prerequisite for training. Mixed signals - such as sometimes petting your dog when he puts his paws up, while other times yelling at him because you’re wearing your “nice” clothes - will confuse your dog and grind training progress to a halt. Some aspects of clear communication are:

• Consistency: All members of the household should follow the same rules and training procedures, unless there is a specific reason to alter them (for example, young kids may not be able to follow some of the more nuanced training procedures, so are given simplified directions). In addition, each person should make sure that they are consistent throughout the day.

• Clear cues: One word/phrase per behavior.

  • Don’t use the same word to mean different things (such as saying “down” when you want your dog to get off the couch and when you want him to lie down on the floor).

  • Don’t use multiple words to mean the same thing (such as “shake” and “gimme your paw” for the same action).

  • Keep your tone consistent (say “come” the same way every time, not sometimes high-pitched and happy and other times low and upset).

  • Don’t jerk on your dog’s leash when you want him to do something; many owners will jerk when they want their dog to sit, or to slow down, or to stop sniffing, or to look up. How is your dog to know which one you want? Give them a verbal cue or hand signal that has been trained for a specific behavior, instead.

• Reward markers: Use a clicker or other quick reward marker to let your dog know when they’ve done something good and earned a reward. I use a happy “yes!” when I want to use a verbal marker instead of a clicker. The reward marker should always be followed by a treat or other reward.

  • For more information on clicker training, check out Clicker Training 101: A Quick Beginner’s Guide and Frequently Asked Questions about Clicker Training.

• Communication goes both ways - in addition to being clear when cuing your dog, you should learn to read his body language so that you can understand what he is “saying” to you. Here are some resources on dog body language.

As we work together to train your dog using humane and effective positive methods, your ability to communicate with your dog will grow exponentially - leading to a stronger bond and more reliable behaviors.

Dealing with loose dogs

You’re out on a leashed walk with your dog, and out of nowhere, there’s an off leash dog running up to you. Maybe he’s all alone, or maybe there’s an owner in the distance calling out “he’s friendly!” What do you do?

If your own dog is highly social

The majority of the time, these encounters might be annoying but don’t cause any harm. Do your best to keep your leash loose as the dogs sniff and circle around each other, to reduce frustration and escalating arousal. Talk calmly but happily to the dogs, and remember to breathe! The calmer you are, the better your dog will do.

Once greetings are done, encourage your dog to get going again. If he’s reluctant, try jogging ahead, giving exciting/happy talk, or luring away with food. If he still doesn’t want to leave his new buddy behind, you may have to take him by the collar or harness and calmly but insistently lead him away. Reward your dog once he’s willingly walking with you, away from the other dog.

If either dog is not friendly

But what if your dog is anxious or fearful around other dogs, or even potentially aggressive? Or the oncoming dog seems aggressive? Here are some tools to keep everyone safe.

• Toss treats in the dog’s face. If the other dog isn’t coming up too quickly, and doesn’t look aggressive, throwing a handful of treats right at their face may be enough to deter them. It will startle them, and hopefully they will then drop their heads and eat the treats while you make a getaway.

• Walking cane or stick. This can be waved back and forth ahead of you, to keep the other dog back.

• Pop-up umbrella. Opening this up while it faces the other dog can startle them into stopping, and it can be waved between you and the other dog.

• SprayShield by PetSafe. This spray is strongly citronella-scented, which will deter the vast majority of oncoming dogs if sprayed in their faces (without hurting the way that mace does). Keep this in an easy to reach pocket or clipped on your pants/belt/treat pouch. You should practice pulling it out and switching off the safety during your walks, so that you’ll have good muscle memory to rely on in an emergency.

• Break stick. This is a tapered plastic or wooden stake, used to force open the jaws of a dog that has firmly clamped down and is not letting go. You must first get a strong hold of the dog that is biting down, so that they can’t regrip once you free the other dog, or redirect onto you. Insert the flat end of the break stick into the corner of the dog’s jaw, then twist as if you were revving a motorcycle. Using a break stick requires a cool head and having a strong grip on the dog and the stick, but it’s much much safer than sticking your bare hands into the situation.

• Muzzle, if your dog has bitten and caused damage before. I have known several dogs who were safely on leash with their responsible owners, had other dogs run up on them, and injured them in the resulting fight. Unfortunately if your own dog has a bite history, you have to take it upon yourself to protect other people’s dogs. Here is a page all about muzzles.

Note that you should desensitize your own dog to the waving of a walking stick, the umbrella opening and moving around, and the sound of SprayShield before you use them in a tense situation.

If you have any reservations about acting offensively toward another dog running up, I recommend taking the attitude that Sarah Stremming lays out in her podcast, Cog Dog Radio:

I expected the dog to run straight up to us, and that's why I am prepared for that outcome, and therefore I'm not super worried about that outcome. A few things that make me not super-worried: One is I have a really good grip on reading dogs. I understand if the dog approaching me is safe or not, for the most part. I carry Spray Shield. I also carry Pet Corrector, and I will stop a dog with one of those things if I don't think it should approach my dog. I will also throw leashes at dogs, I will throw food at dogs. I basically don't hesitate to control the public's dog. I think what we do, is we try to control our own dog, while we yell at that other person to control theirs. And that just - I don't know about you, but I've been in that situation - it doesn't work, it doesn't work for anybody. Your dog is horrified at being restrained, that's really breaking down some trust. They see that you're upset, that's not a good thing. The other person gets mad at you too, because you've embarrassed them, because they can't control their dog. And it's just a bad situation. So control that dog for yourself, in any way that you feel comfortable doing it.

Extra protection for small to medium sized dogs

Consider a CoyoteVest to protect your dog’s neck and back from attack. Here is one being modeled by Frankie.

Useful training

In addition to the tools above, there are a couple things you can teach your dog to make these situations easier to navigate.

• Get behind: Your dog gets behind you and stays there, so that you can deal with the other dog.

• Come or u-turn: A strong response to “come” or “u-turn” will redirect your dog, or help him turn and run with you to quickly exit the situation.